Scytho-Siberian world

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This article is about the Iron Age cultures on the Eurasian Steppe. For the Iranian people of the Pontic steppe, see Scythians. For other uses, see Scythian (disambiguation).
Scytho-Siberian world
File:Scytho-Siberian world.jpg
Geographical range Eurasian Steppe
Period Iron Age
Dates c. 900 BC–200 AD
Preceded by Srubnaya culture, Andronovo culture
Followed by Goths, Alans, Xiongnu, Circassians

The Scytho-Siberian world[1][lower-alpha 1] was an archaeological horizon which flourished across the entire Eurasian Steppe during the Iron Age from approximately the 9th century BC to the 2nd century AD. It included the Scythian, Sauromatian and Sarmatian cultures of Eastern Europe, the Saka-Massagetae and Tasmola cultures of Central Asia, and the Aldy-Bel, Pazyryk and Tagar cultures of south Siberia.

The Scythian-Siberian world was characterized by the Scythian triad, which are similar, yet not identical, styles of weapons, horses' bridles, and jewelry and decorative art. The question of how related these cultures were is disputed among scholars. Its peoples were of diverse origins, and included not just Scythians, from which the cultures are named, but other peoples as well, such as the Cimmerians, Massagetae, Saka, Sarmatians, and obscure forest steppe populations. Mostly speakers of the Scythian branch of the Iranian languages,[lower-alpha 2] all of these peoples are sometimes collectively referred to as Scythians, Scytho-Siberians, Early Nomads, or Iron Age Nomads.[3]

Origins and spread

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Further information: Scythia
Horseman from the Pazyryk burials, c. 300 BC, one of the most famous archaeological discoveries from the Scytho-Siberian world.[2] Equestrianism is one of the chief characteristics of the Scytho-Siberian world

The Scytho-Siberian world emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC. Its origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.[4] The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.[5][6]

Recent excavations at Arzhan in Tuva, Russia have uncovered the earliest Scythian-style kurgan yet found.[7] Similarly the earliest examples of the animal style art which would later characterize the Scytho-Siberian cultures have been found near the upper Yenisei River and North China, dating to the 10th century BC. Based on these finds, it has been suggested that the Scytho-Siberian world emerged at an early period in southern Siberia.[5] It is probably in this area the Scythian way of life initially developed.[2][8] Recent genetic studies have concluded that the Scythians formed from European-related groups of the Yamnaya culture and East Asian/Siberian groups during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[9][10][5][11]

The Scytho-Siberian world quickly came to stretch from the Pannonian Basin in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east.[12] There were however significant cultural differences between east and west.[10] Over time they came in contact with other ancient civilizations, such as Assyria, Greece and Persia. In the late 1st millennium BC, peoples belonging to the Scytho-Siberian world expanded into Iran (Sakastan), India (Indo-Scythians) and the Tarim Basin.[13] In the early centuries AD the western part of the Scytho-Siberian world came under pressure from the Goths and other Germanic peoples.[13] The end of the Scythian period in archaeology has been set at approximately the 2nd century AD.[2]

Recent archeological and genetic data confirmed that Western and Eastern Scythians of the 1st millennium BC originated independently, but both formed from a combination of a Yamnaya-related ancestry component from the area of the European steppes,[14] and an East Asian-related component most closely corresponding to the modern North Siberian Nganasan people of the lower Yenesei.[14] Furthermore, archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of the Scytho-Siberian world, characterized by its kurgan burial mounds and its Animal style of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern kurgans are older than western ones (such as the Altaic kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva), and elements of the Animal style are first attested in areas of the Yenisei river and modern-day China in the 10th century BC.[15] The rapid spread of the Scytho-Siberian world, from the Eastern Scythians to the Western Scythians, is also confirmed by significant east-to-west gene flow across the steppes during the 1st millennium BC.[14][15]

Peoples

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See also: Eurasian nomads and Scythian languages
File:0 Sarcophage - Soumission des sarmates - Museo Pio-Clementino (2) (cropped).JPG
Depiction of a Sarmatian from a Roman sarcophagus, 2nd century AD. Although a different people than the Scythians, the Sarmatians were part of the Scytho-Siberian world.[5]

Ethnicity

The peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world are mentioned by contemporary Persian and Greek historians. They were mostly speakers of Iranian languages.[lower-alpha 2]

File:Range of Scythians.png
Scythians and other peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world

Despite belonging to similar material cultures, the peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world belonged to many separate ethnic groups.[16][17] Peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world include speakers of the Scythian languages:[5][18]

Although the peoples of the forest steppe were part of the Scytho-Siberian world, their origins are obscure;[18] there might have been early Slavs, Balts, and Finnic peoples among them.[20][21] The settled population of the Scytho-Siberian world areas also included Thracians.[9]

Terminology

Among the diverse peoples of the Scytho-Siberian world, the Scythians are the most famous, due to the reports on them published by the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus. The ancient Persians referred to all nomads of steppe as Saka. In modern times, term Scythians is sometimes applied to all the peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world.[20] Within this terminology it is often distinguished between "western" Scythians living on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, and "eastern" Scythians living on the Eastern Steppe.[5][13] The term Scytho-Siberians has also been applied to all peoples associated with the Scytho-Siberian world.[22] The terms Early Nomads[23] and Iron Age Nomads have also been used.[10] The terms Saka or Sauromates, and Scytho-Siberians, is sometimes used for the "eastern" Scythians living in Central Asia and southern Siberia respectively.[9][24]

The ambiguity of the term Scythian has led to a lot of confusion in literature.[lower-alpha 3][18]

Nicola Di Cosmo (1999) questions the validity of referring to the cultures of all early Eurasian nomads as "Scythian", and recommends the use of alternative terms such as Early Nomadic.[26][lower-alpha 4]

By ancient authors, the term "Scythian" eventually came to be applied to a wide range of peoples "who had no relation whatever to the original Scythians", such as Huns, Goths, Türks, Avars, Khazars, and other unnamed nomads.[13]

Characteristics

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Further information: Scythian art
Horse attacked by tiger, Ordos culture, 4th-1st century BC. The cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world are characteristic for their art, which was made in the animal style.

The cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world are recognized for three characteristics known as the Scythian triad:[18][24]

Their art was made in the animal style, so characteristic that it is also called Scythian art.

Finds

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See also: Solokha, Kul-Oba, and Tillya Tepe

In the beginning of the 18th century, Russian explorers began uncovering Scythian finds throughout their newly acquired territories.

Significant Scythian archaeological finds have been uncovered up to recent times. A major find are the Pazyryk burials, which were discovered on the Ukok Plateau in the 1940s. The finds are notably for revealing the form of mummification practiced by the Scythians.[2] Another important find is the Issyk kurgan.[8]

Society

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See also: Equestrianism and Horses in warfare
File:Sun emperor.JPG
The Golden Man of Issyk Kurgan, c. 4th–3rd century BC

The Scythians were excellent craftsmen with complex cultural traditions. Horse sacrifices are common in Scythian graves, and several of the sacrificed horses were evidently old and well-kept, indicating that the horse played a prominent role in Scythian society.[2] They played a prominent role in the network connecting ancient civilizations known as the Silk Road.[13] The homogeneity of patrilineal lineages and contrasting diversity of matrilineal lineages of samples from Scythian burial sites indicate that Scythian society was strongly patriarchal.[24]

Numerous archaeological finds have revealed that the Scythians led a warlike life: Their competition for territory must have been fierce. The numerous weapons placed in graves are indicative of a highly militarized society. Scythian warfare was primarily conducted through mounted archery. They were the first great power to perfect this tactic. The Scythians developed a new, powerful type of bow known as the Scythian bow. Sometimes they would poison their arrows.[2]

Physical appearance

The Scythians were tall and powerfully built, even by modern standards.[lower-alpha 5] Skeletons of Scythian elites differ from those of modern people by their longer arms and legs, and stronger bone formation. Commoners were shorter, averaging 10–15 cm (4–6 in) shorter than the elite.[28]

Their physical traits are characteristic of Iranian peoples and support a common origin indicated by the linguistic evidence, however, people of mixed race appearance are also indicated by the archaeological and historical evidence.[lower-alpha 5][28]

Numerous Eastern Scythian remains have been found in an excellent state of preservation in the Altai mountains, with soft tissues such as skin and hair preserved.[29] From the Pazyryk valley, Scythian remains show a variety of hair colors, ranging from black to bright chestnut.[30] Mummified Scythian warriors from the Ukok plateau and Mongolia had blond hair.[31][32]

Preserved skin tissue also reveals that the eastern Scythians had tattoos. Tattooing is not thought to have been practiced by western Scythians.[33]

Genetics

File:PCA of Mongolia through Time.png
PCA of ancient individuals (n = 214) of the Eurasian Steppe from three major periods projected onto contemporary Eurasians (Scythians as "Chandman_IA" symbols).[34]

The genetics of remains from Scythian-identified cultures show broad general patterns, among these are remarkably different histories for men and women. Their ethnic affiliations are summarized above. Their familial inter-relations are discussed below.

There are two distinct paternal lineages in the east and west,[5][10][24] with the eastern and western paternal lineages being themselves homogeneous. The paternal western Scythian haplogroups are closely related to modern Europeans,[4] but disappeared from the Scythian steppe region,[10] being eventually replaced by the eastern Scythians.[35] The surviving modern populations most closely related to the paternal western Scythian lineages are in Europe; apparently none remain in mid- and northern-Asia.[4][24]

In contrast, the maternal lineages among Scythians are diverse,[5][10][24] and the eastern and western maternal lines were significantly mixed.[9][35] The free intermarriage of women across all of the Scytho-Siberian world could be what maintained trans-Scythian cultural coherence.[5] Further, rather than dying out, local maternal Scythian lineages persist among modern people living near the excavated graves.[5]

Ethnogenesis

In 2017, a genetic study of various cultures of the Scytho-Siberian world was published in Nature Communications. The study found that Late Bronze Age Scythians (and other Central Asian groups) harbored nearly exclusively European-related (Western Steppe Herders) ancestry, close or identical to the earlier Sintashta, Andronovo, and Afanasievo culture. Since the late Iron Age the Scythian gene pool became more diverse, and late Iron Age Scythians can be described as admixture between dominant European-related ancestry from the Yamnaya culture, with an East Asian component. Iron Age Scythians can be differentiated into Western Scythians (in Central Asia) which had predominantly European-related ancestry, and Eastern Scythians, which harbored increased East Asian-related admixture. While the origin of the Scythian material culture is disputed, their evidence suggest an ultimate origin in the Eastern Steppe, close the Altai Mountains, perhaps linked to the earlier Afanasievo culture. Modern populations relative closely related to the ancient Scythians were found to be populations living in proximity to the sites studied, suggesting genetic continuity.[36]

Krzewińska et al. (2018) found that the Eastern Scythian Steppe populations were genetically heterogeneous and had next to their European-related ancestry also genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals.[37]

Järve et al. (2019) found that the nomadic Scythians were of different genetic origins, while sharing a common material culture. They suggested that migrations must have played a role in the emergence of the Scythians as the dominant power on the Pontic steppe.[38]

A 2021 study by Gnecchi-Ruscone et al., concluded that the Eastern Scythians around the Altai mountain were of multiple origins and that they originated from an admixture event in the Bronze Age. The Eastern Scythians genetically formed from mixture between Steppe_MLBA sources (which could be associated with different cultures such as Sintashta, Srubnaya, and Andronovo) and a specific East-Eurasian source that was already present during the LBA in the neighboring northern Mongolia region.[39]

Western Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in western Asia and eastern Europe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

Initially, the Western Scythians carried only West Eurasian maternal haplogroups, but the frequency of East Eurasian haplogroups rises to 26% in samples dated to the 2nd century BCE.[40] Among the Western Scythians discovered at Rostov-on-Don, in European Russia, East Eurasian maternal haplogroups make up 37.5% of the total. These results possibly suggest the increasing presence of East Eurasian women in Western Scythian populations, although autosomal genetic evidence is needed to confirm this observation.[41]

In terms of paternal haplogroups, most Western Scythian remains from the North Pontic region have been observed to carry a specific clade haplogroup R1b, which distinguishes them from Eastern Scythians, who generally exhibited haplogroup haplogroup R1a, as well as other haplogroups. One Scythian from the Samara region carried R1a-Z93.[42]

Eastern Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in central Eurasia and the eastern steppe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

File:Analyses of Iron-Age nomads and ancestral sources.png
Analyses of Iron-Age nomads and ancestral sources

Pilipenko (2018)[43] studied mtDNA from remains of the Tagar culture, which was part of the Scytho-Siberian world. Although found in Khakassia, at the eastern extreme of the Eurasian steppe, remains from the early stage of the Tagar culture were found to be closely related to those of contemporary Scythians on the Pontic-Caspian steppe far to the west, exhibiting both West Eurasian and East Eurasian lineages. However, the fossils from the middle stage of the Tagar culture showed a strong increase in East Eurasian maternal lineages, increasing from 35% to nearly 45% by the middle stage.[44] Notably, the mtDNA haplogroups C and D increased from 8.7 to 37.8%.[45]

Mary, et al. (2019) [24] studied the genetics of remains from the Aldy-Bel culture in and around Tuva in central Asia, adjacent to western Mongolia; the Aldy-Bel culture is considered one of the Scytho-Siberian cultures. The authors also analyzed the maternal haplogroups of 26 Siberian Scythian remains from Arzhan. 50% of the remains carried an East Eurasian haplogroup, while 50% carried a West Eurasian haplogroup. In contrast to the paternal lineages, the maternal lineages were extremely diverse. The most common lineages were variants of haplogroup C4.[46]

Mary, et al. (2019) also determined the paternal haplogroups of 16 Siberian Scythian males of the Aldy-Bel culture. 56.2% of the haplogroups belonged to varities of the West Eurasian haplogroup R1a. On the other hand, 31.2% belonged to the East Eurasian haplogroup Q1b, which was found in Bronze Age samples from the Altai mountains. Aditionally, one specimen (6.25%) carried haplogroup N-M231 which is associated with neolithic remains from Northern China.[47]

The Scythian groups of the Pontic Steppe and South Siberia had significantly different paternal genetics, which suggests that the Pontic and South Siberian Scythians had completely different paternal origins, with almost no paternal gene flow between them.[24][lower-alpha 6]

Unterländer, et al. (2017) fount that eastern Scythians share strong genetic similarities with modern day Turkic speakers in Siberia, which supports a "multi-regional origin" of the eastern Iron Age Scythians.[48] According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the eastern Scythians "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements".[49] Another study suggests that this research casts doubt on the historical consensus that the Scythians only spoke an Iranian language.[50] Eastern Scythians share common ancestry with contemporary Turkic, Mongolian, and Siberian groups in eastern Eurasia, while evidence of Scythian ancestry is strongest among speakers of the Kipchak languages.[51] There is strong evidence for continuity from the eastern Scythians to the Turkic speakers of the Altai region.[52]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Also referred to as the Scythian cultures, Scythic cultures, Scytho-Siberian cultures, Early Nomadic cultures, the Scythian civilization, the Scythian horizon, the Scythian world, or the Scythian continuum.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "[A] nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages ..."[2]
  3. ↑ "The Achaemenids called the Scythians 'Saka' which sometimes leads to confusion in the literature. The term 'Scythians' is particularly used for the representatives of this culture who lived in the European part of the steppe zone. Those who lived in Central Asia are often called Sauromates or Saka and in the Altai area, they are generally known as Scytho-Siberians."[25]
  4. ↑ "Even though there were fundamental ways in which nomadic groups over such a vast territory differed, the terms 'Scythian' and 'Scythic' have been widely adopted to describe a special phase that followed the widespread diffusion of mounted nomadism, characterized by the presence of special weapons, horse gear, and animal art in the form of metal plaques. Archaeologists have used the term 'Scythic continuum' in a broad cultural sense to indicate the early nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppe. The term 'Scythic' draws attention to the fact that there are elements – shapes of weapons, vessels, and ornaments, as well as lifestyle – common to both the eastern and western ends of the Eurasian steppe region. However, the extension and variety of sites across Asia makes Scythian and Scythic terms too broad to be viable, and the more neutral 'early nomadic' is preferable, since the cultures of the Northern Zone cannot be directly associated with either the historical Scythians or any specific archaeological culture defined as Saka or Scytho-Siberian."[26]
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "[T]he [elite] Scythians were relatively tall. This tallness is particularly noticeable in warrior burials and those of men of the upper social stratum, who would seem tall even today ... [T]hese skeletons differ from those of today in their longer arm and leg bones and a generally stronger bone formation ... The physical characteristics of the Scythians correspond to their cultural affiliation: [T]heir origins place them within the group of Iranian peoples ... [W]e are dealing with a period in which huge areas of Siberia far into Mongolia were still inhabited by ancient Europoids."[27]
  6. ↑ "The absence of R1b lineages in the Scytho-Siberian individuals tested so far and their presence in the North Pontic Scythians suggest that these two groups had a completely different paternal lineage makeup with nearly no gene flow from male carriers between them."[24]

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Simpson 2017.
  3. ↑ Unterländer 2017. Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age. The origin of the widespread Scythian-Siberian cultures has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians3 until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin4. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva5, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan5. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts6,7. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE1,4 were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence and origin of Scythian culture in the East.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Järve 2019.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 Unterländer 2017.
  6. ↑ Krzewińska 2018. The nomadic populations were heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals. Genetic analyses of maternal lineages of Scythians suggest a mixed origin and an east-west admixture gradient across the Eurasian steppe (10–12). The genomics of two early Scythian Aldy-Bel individuals (13) showed genetic affinities to eastern Asian populations (12).
  7. ↑ Medrano 2018.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Alekseev 2017.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Juras 2017.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Krzewińska 2018.
  11. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Kennedy 2017.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Nicholson 2018, pp. 1346–1347.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Unterländer 2017."Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age." and "The blend of EHG [European hunter-gatherer] and Caucasian elements in carriers of the Yamnaya culture was formed on the European steppe and exported into Central Asia and Siberia"
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Unterländer 2017. "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BC were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East."
  16. ↑ David & McNiven 2018, p. 156.
  17. ↑ Watson 1972, p. 142.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Ivanchik 2018.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Batty 2007, p. 205.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 West 2002, pp. 439-440.
  21. ↑ Davis-Kimball, Bashilov & Yablonsky 1995, p. 33.
  22. ↑ Jacobson 1995, pp. 36-37.
  23. ↑ David & McNiven 2018.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 Mary 2019.
  25. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Di Cosmo 1999, p. 891.
  27. ↑ Rolle 1989, pp. 55-56.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Rolle 1989, pp. 55-57.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Argent 2011, p. 43
  31. ↑ Argent 2011, p. 38
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. "Of particular value, kurgan Olon Kurin Gol 10 contained a completely intact burial chamber with a mummified blond warrior fully dressed and equipped with a full set of weapons."
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Pilipenko 2018.
  36. ↑ Unterländer 2017. Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age. The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians3 until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin4. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva5, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan5. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts6,7. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style’ dated to the tenth century BCE1,4 were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence and origin of Scythian culture in the East.
  37. ↑ Krzewińska 2018. The nomadic populations were heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals. Genetic analyses of maternal lineages of Scythians suggest a mixed origin and an east-west admixture gradient across the Eurasian steppe (10–12). The genomics of two early Scythian Aldy-Bel individuals (13) showed genetic affinities to eastern Asian populations (12).
  38. ↑ Järve 2019. "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence [1, 2, 3]. All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ Unterländer et al. Hofmanová, p. 4
  41. ↑ Juras 2017, p. 8/10
  42. ↑ Mary 2019, p. 10/13
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Pilipenko et al. Nesterova
  45. ↑ Pilipenko et al. Nesterova
  46. ↑ Mary 2019, p. 7/13.
  47. ↑ Mary 2019, p. 10/13.
  48. ↑ Unterländer et al. Hofmanová, p. 69
  49. ↑ Tikhonov et al. 2019, p. 42
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. "The opinion existing in historical literature about the ubiquitous Iranian language of the Scythians does not seem so correct, espe-cially in the light of recent works showing  the exceptional connection of the Eastern  Scythians with Turkic-speaking peoples,  especially those whose languages belong  to the Kypchak group of the Altai language  family [26]."
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. "Contemporary descendants of western Scythian groups are found among various groups in the Caucasus and Central Asia, while similarities to eastern Scythian are found to be more widespread, but almost exclusively among Turkic language speaking (formerly) nomadic groups, particularly from the Kipchak branch of Turkic languages (Supplementary Note 1)."
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. "The substantial presence of the Ak-Alakha-1 mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes in the contemporary Anatolian populations may be attributed to two major historical events: (a) the less likely being the Scythian invasion of Anatolia around 7th century BCE and settlement for around 30 years near the Aras or Araxes River (Herodotus 1920), and (b) the more likely being the Central Asiatic Turkic migrations into Anatolia from around 11th century CE onwards, keeping in mind the ever growing support for a strong genetic continuity between the ancient eastern Scythians and the proto-Turkic tribes (Unterlander et al. 2017)."
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  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Further reading

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. — Good; free download (with registration).
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

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