List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

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Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Imperial
Osmanli-nisani.svg
Semailname 47b.jpg
Suleiman I (1520–1566)
Details
Style His Imperial Majesty[a]
First monarch Osman Gazi (1281–1326)
Last monarch Mehmed VI (1918–1922)
Formation 27 July 1299
Abolition 1 November 1922
Residence Palaces in Istanbul:
Appointer Hereditary
Ottoman Imperial Standard
Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), made up solely of the members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned from Hungary in the north to Somalia in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iran in the east. Administered at first from the city of Bursa, the empire's capital was moved to Edirne in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I, and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend; nevertheless, most modern scholars agree that the empire came into existence around 1299 and that its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I Khan (leader) of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.[3]

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

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Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. The sultan was at the apex of the hierarchical Ottoman system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (Turkish: Allah'ın yeryüzündeki gölgesi), (Arabic: ظل الله في العالم‎‎ zill Allah fi'l-alem) and "caliph on the earth" (Persian: خلیفه روی زمین‎‎ khalife-i ru-yi zemin).[4] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[5] Ertuğrul served as the elected leader of the Ottomans from 1230 until his death in 1281. In 1281, Ertuğrul's son, Osman, became elected leader of the Ottomans. From 1299 until his death in 1326, Osman served as Osman I "Sultan of the Ottoman Empire."

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar (قیصر Qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[4][6][7] as well as the caliph of Islam. Following the conquest of Egypt in 1517, Selim I furthered strengthened the claim of caliphal authority.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[8] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[9]

Although theocratic and absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[5] From the 17th century onwards, the empire entered into a long-term period of stagnation, during which the sultans were much enfeebled. Many of them ended up being deposed by the powerful Janissary corps. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[10] women of the Imperial Harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the Valide Sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[11]

The declining powers of the sultans are evidenced by the difference in reign lengths between early sultans and later ones. Suleiman I, who ruled the empire when it was at its zenith in the 16th century, had a reign of 46 years, the longest in Ottoman history. Mehmed Murad V, who ruled in the late 19th-century period of decline, had the shortest reign on record: he was in power for just 93 days before being deposed. Constitutionalism was only established during the reign of Murad V's successor, Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[12] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2009, the head of the House of Osman and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Bayezid Osman, a great-grandson of Abdülmecid I.[13]

List of sultans

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. When a sultan's reign did not end through a natural death, the reason is indicated in bold. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[14] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[15] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[16]

The official full style of the Ottoman Sultans was:

'Ala Hazrat-i-Aqdas-i-Hümayun (اعلی حضرت اقدس همایون, His Sacred and Imperial Majesty) Sultan (سلطان) N.N. Khan (خان),
Padishah (پادشاه), i.e. Emperor,
Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman (شاه خاندان آل عثمان), i.e. Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman,
Sultan us-Selatin (سلطان السلاطین), i.e. Sultan of Sultans,
Khakan (خاقان), i.e. Khan of Khans,
Amir ül-Mü'minin ve Khalifeh ül-Rasul Rabb al-A’alimin (امیر المؤمنین و خلیفه الرسول رب العالمین), i.e. Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe,
Khâdim ül-Haramayn ush-Sharifayn (خادم الحرمین الشریفین), i.e. Custodian of the Two Noble Sanctuaries (i.e. the Holy Cities of Mecca, and Medina),
Qayser-i Rûm (قیصر روم), i.e. Caesar of the Roman Empire (or the Grecian Ceasar)
Padişah-i thalath şehireha-i Qostantiniyye, Edirne ve Hüdavendigâr, ül şehireyn-i Dimaşq ve Qahira, tamam Azerbayjan, Mağrib, Barqah, Kayravan, Haleb, ül-‘Iraq-i ‘Arab vel ‘Ajam, Basra, ül-dulan-i Lahsa, Rakka, Musul, Partiyye, Diyârbekir, Kilikiyye, ül vilâyatun-i Erzurum, Sivas, Adana, Karaman, Van, Barbariyye, Habeş, Tunus, Trablus-i Garb, Şam, Kıbrıs, Rodos, Girit, ül vilâyet-i Mora, ül Bahr-i Sefid vel Bahr-i Siyah ve i-swahil, Anadolu, Rumeli, Bagdâd, Kurdistân, Yunanistan, Türkistan, Tatariyye, Çerkesyye, ül mintaqateyn-i Kabarda, Gürjistan, ül-Deşt-i Qipçaq, tamam ül-mamlikat-i Tatar, Kefe ve tamam ül-etraf, Bosna, ül şehir ve hisar-i Belgrat, ül vilâyet-i Sırbistan bil tamam ül-hisareha ve şehireha, tamam Arnaut, tamam Eflâk ve Boğdan, ve tamam ül-mustamlak vel-hududeha, ve muteaddit mamalekat ve şehireha, i.e. Emperor of The Three Cities of Constantinople, Adrianople and Bursa, and of the Cities of Damascus and Cairo, of all Azerbaijan, of the Magreb, of Barca, of Kairouan, of Aleppo, of the Arabic and the Persian Iraq, of Basra, of Al-Hasa strip, of Ar Raqqah, of Mosul, of Diyarbakır, of Cilicia, of the provinces of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, Van, of Barbara, of Abyssinia, of Tunisia, of Tripoli-of-the-West (Tripolitania), of Sham, of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Crete, of the province of Morea, of the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and also their coasts, of Anatolia, Rumelia, Baghdad, Kurdistan, Greece, Turkistan, Tartary, Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Georgia, of the steppe of Kypchaks, of the whole realm of the Tatars, of Kefe and of all the neighboring regions, of Bosnia, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the province of Serbia, with all the castles and cities, of all Albania, of all Eflak and Bogdania, as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many other countries and cities.
№ Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Tughra Notes
— Emir Gazi
Ertuğrul Bey
ارطغرل غازی
Amîr Ghazi –
The Esquire
(1191–1281)		 No image.svg 1230 1281 —
[c]
— Emir Gazi
Osman Bey
عثمان بن ارطغرل
Amîr Fakhr ud-din
Othman-Al Ghazi – The Esquire
(1258–1324)		 Osman Gazi2.jpg 1281 1299 —
[c]
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(27 July 1299 – 20 July 1402)
1 Osman I
GHAZI (The Warrior)
BEY (The Esquire)
KARA (lit. The Land or The Black for his bravery)		 Osman Gazi2.jpg 27 July 1299 29 July 1326 —
[c]
2 Orhan
GHAZI (The Warrior)
BEY (The Esquire)		 Orhan Gazi.jpg 29 July 1326 1362 Tughra of Orhan
3 Murad I
SULTAN-İ AZAM (The Most Exalted Sultan)
HÜDAVENDİGÂR - Khodāvandgār
(The devotee of God)
ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)[19][b]		 Murat Hüdavendigar.jpg 1362 15 June 1389 Tughra of Murad I
4 Bayezid I
SULTAN-İ RÛM (Sultan of the Roman Empire)
YILDIRIM (The Thunderbolt)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 I Bayezit small.jpg 15 June 1389 20 July 1402 Tughra of Bayezid I
Ottoman Interregnum (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
5 Mehmed I
ÇELEBİ (The Affable)
KİRİŞÇİ (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Mehmed I miniature.jpg 5 July 1413 26 May 1421 Tughra of Mehmed I
6 Murad II
KOCA (The Great)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 II. Murat.jpg 25 June 1421 1444 Tughra of Murad II
7 Mehmed II
FATİH (The Conqueror)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan Mehmed II The Conqueror.jpg 1444 1446 Tughra of Mehmed II
— Murad II
KOCA (The Great)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 II. Murat.jpg 1446 3 February 1451 Tughra of Murad II
  • Second reign;
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence;[26]
  • Reigned until his death.[23]
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(29 May 1453 – 11 November 1606)
— Mehmed II
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)[b]
QAYSER-İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire)
FATİH (The Conqueror)		 Sultan Mehmed II The Conqueror.jpg 3 February 1451 3 May 1481 Tughra of Mehmed II
8 Bayezid II
VELÎ (The Saint)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan II. Bayezit.JPG 19 May 1481 25 April 1512 Tughra of Bayezid II
9 Selim I
YAVUZ (The Strong)
Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain
(Servant of Mecca and Medina)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Yavuz Sultan I. Selim Han.jpg 25 April 1512 21 September 1520 Tughra of Selim I
10 Suleiman I
MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent)

or KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)

 Semailname 47b.jpg 30 September 1520 6 or 7 September 1566 Tughra of Suleiman I
11 Selim II
SARI (The Blond)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 II Selim.jpg 29 September 1566 21 December 1574 Tughra of Selim II
  • Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan (Khūrrām or Kārimā);
  • Reigned until his death.[31]
12 Murad III
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan Murad III.jpeg 22 December 1574 16 January 1595 Tughra of Murad III
13 Mehmed III
ADLÎ (The Just)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan Mehmet III (reigned 1595-1603) Enthroned, Attended by Two Janissaries LACMA M.85.237.34.jpg 27 January 1595 20 or 21 December 1603 Tughra of Mehmed III
Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire
(11 November 1606 – 26 January 1699)
14 Ahmed I
BAKHTÎ (The Fortunate)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan I. Ahmet.jpg 21 December 1603 22 November 1617 Tughra of Ahmed I
15 Mustafa I
DELİ (The Deranged)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 I Mustafa (cropped).jpg 22 November 1617 26 February 1618 Tughra of Mustafa I
16 Osman II
GENÇ (The Young)
ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Genç Osman.JPG 26 February 1618 19 May 1622 Tughra of Osman II
— Mustafa I
DELİ (The Deranged)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 I Mustafa (cropped).jpg 20 May 1622 10 September 1623 Tughra of Mustafa I
17 Murad IV
SAHİB-Î KIRAN
The Conqueror of Baghdad
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Murad IV minature.jpg 10 September 1623 8 or 9 February 1640 Tughra of Murad IV
18 Ibrahim
DELİ (The Arrage)
The Conqueror of Crete
ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Ibrahim I.jpg 9 February 1640 8 August 1648 Tughra of Ibrahim
19 Mehmed IV
AVCI (The Hunter)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 IV Mehmet.jpg 8 August 1648 8 November 1687 Tughra of Mehmed IV
20 Suleiman II
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 II Suleyman.jpg 8 November 1687 22 June 1691 Tughra of Suleiman II
21 Ahmed II
KHAN GHAZI (The Warrior Prince)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Ahmet II.jpg 22 June 1691 6 February 1695 Tughra of Ahmed II
22 Mustafa II
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 II Mustafa.jpg 6 February 1695 22 August 1703 Tughra of Mustafa II
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
(26 January 1699 – 9 January 1792)
23 Ahmed III
Tulip Era Sultan
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Levni 002.jpeg 22 August 1703 1 or 2 October 1730 Tughra of Ahmed III
24 Mahmud I
GHAZI (The Warrior)
KAMBUR (The Hunchback)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Mahmud I by John Young.jpg 2 October 1730 13 December 1754 Tughra of Mahmud I
25 Osman III
SOFU (The Devout)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Osman III by John Young.jpg 13 December 1754 29 or 30 October 1757 Tughra of Osman III
26 Mustafa III
YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan Mustafa III.jpg 30 October 1757 21 January 1774 Tughra of Mustafa III
27 Abdülhamid I
Abd ūl-Hāmīd (The Servant of God)
ISLAHATÇI (The Improver)
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Abdulhamid I minature.jpg 21 January 1774 6 or 7 April 1789 Tughra of Abdülhamid I
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[e]
(9 January 1792 – 1 November 1922)
28 Selim III
BESTEKÂR (The Composer)
NİZÂM-Î (Regulative - Orderly)
ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Joseph Warnia-Zarzecki - Sultan Selim III - Google Art Project.jpg 7 April 1789 29 May 1807 Tughra of Selim III
29 Mustafa IV
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 IV. Mustafa.jpg 29 May 1807 28 July 1808 Tughra of Mustafa IV
30 Mahmud II
İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer)
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 MahmutII.jpg 28 July 1808 1 July 1839 Tughra of Mahmud II
31 Abdülmecid I
TANZİMÂTÇI
(The Strong Reformist or
The Advocate of Reorganization)
GHAZI (The Warrior)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Sultan Abdülmecid - Google Art Project.jpg 1 July 1839 25 June 1861 Tughra of Abdülmecid I
32 Abdülaziz I
BAHTSIZ (The Unfortunate)
ŞEHÎD (Shāhīd)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Abdul-aziz (cropped).JPG 25 June 1861 30 May 1876 Tughra of Abdülaziz
33 Mehmed Murad V
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Portrait of Murad V.jpg 30 May 1876 31 August 1876 Tughra of Murad V
34 Abdülhamid II
Ulû Sultân Abd ūl-Hāmīd Khan

(The Sublime Khan)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)

 Abdul Hamid II in Balmoral Castle in 1867.jpg 31 August 1876 27 April 1909 Tughra of Abdülhamid II
35 Mehmed V
REŞÂD (Rashād)

(The True Path Follower)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)

 Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire cropped.jpg 27 April 1909 3 July 1918 Tughra of Mehmed V
36 Mehmed VI
VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād-Dīn)

(The Unifier of Religion (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam)
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)

 Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg 4 July 1918 1 November 1922 Tughra of Mehmed VI
Republican Caliphate
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
— Abdülmecid II
HALİFE (Caliph of Islam)		 Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg 18 November 1922 3 March 1924 —
[c]

Interregnum period (1402–1413)

№ Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Tughra Notes
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
— İsa Çelebi
The Co-Sultan of Anatolia		 1403–1405
(Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory)		 1406 —
— Emir (Amir)
Süleyman Çelebi
The First Sultan of Rumelia		 Arolsen Klebeband 01 449 4.jpg 20 July 1402 17 February 1411[60] —
— Musa Çelebi
The Second Sultan of Rumelia		 Musa Çelebi.jpg 18 February 1411 5 July 1413[62] —
— Mehmed Çelebi
The Sultan of Anatolia		 Mehmed I miniature.jpg 1403–1406
(Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory)

1406–1413
(The Sultan of Anatolia)		 5 July 1413 —

See also

Notes

a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultan-i azam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[65] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[66] The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:[67]

"Sovereign of The Sublime House of Osman, Sultan es Selatin (Sultan of Sultans), Khakhan (Khakan of the Khans), Commander of the faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the lord of the Universe, Custodian of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Kouds (Jerusalem), Padishah of The Three Cities of Istanbul (Constantinople), Edirne (Adrianople) and Bursa, and of the Cities of Châm (Damascus) and Cairo (Egypt), of all Azerbaijan, of the Magreb, of Barkah, of Kairouan, of Alep, of the Arab and Persian Iraq, of Basra, of El Hasa strip, of Raka, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyâr-ı Bekr, of Cilicia, of the provinces of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, of Van, of Barbaria, of Habech (Abyssinia), of Tunisia, of Tripoli, of Châm (Syria), of Cyprus, of Rhodes, of Crete, of the province of Morea (Peloponnese), of Bahr-i Sefid (Mediterranean Sea), of Bahr-i Siyah (Black Sea), of Anatolia, of Rumelia (the European part of the Empire), of Bagdad, of Kurdistan, of Greece, of Turkestan, of Tartary, of Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Gorjestan (Georgia), of the steppe of Kipchaks, of the whole country of the Tatars, of Kefa (Feodosiya) and of all the neighbouring regions, of Bosnia, of the City and Fort of Belgrade, of the province of Sirbistan (Serbia), with all the castles and cities, of all Arnaut, of all Eflak (Wallachia) and Bogdania (Moldavia), as well as all the dependencies and borders, and many others countries and cities"

b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I acquired the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517, after the last Abbasid in Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III, surrendered to him. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty officialised the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[68] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, vainly inciting the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdülhamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[69] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[70]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered, although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul bin Gündüz Alp" has been identified.[71] Abdülmecid II, the last Ottoman caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[72]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya.[56] This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdülmecid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[73] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[74] Although Abdülmecid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of caliph until the office of the caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[70] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[75]

References

  1. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 21
  2. ↑ Glazer 1996, "The Ottoman Empire"
  3. ↑ Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Findley 2005, p. 115
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
  6. ↑ Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
  7. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 20
  8. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 93
  9. ↑ d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
  10. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 90
  11. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 91
  15. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 92
  16. ↑ Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ Kafadar 1996, p. xix
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  48. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  54. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 13
  58. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 17
  59. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 14
  60. ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul,2009,ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
  61. ↑ Nicholae Jorga: Geschishte des Osmanichen (Trans :Nilüfer Epçeli) Vol 1 Yeditepe yayınları, İstanbul, 2009, ISBN 975-6480 17 3 p 314
  62. ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p 58-60.
  63. ↑ Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 p 74-75
  64. ↑ Joseph von Hammer:Osmanlı Tarihi cilt I (condensation: Abdülkadir Karahan), Milliyet yayınları, İstanbul. p. 58-60.
  65. ↑ Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
  71. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  72. ↑ Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
  73. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 54
  74. ↑ Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
  75. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Bibliography

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

External links

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  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
— Royal house —
New creation
 Rulers of the Ottoman Empire
1299–1922		 Sultanate abolished
Powers transferred to
The Presidents of Turkey
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Holders of the Caliphate
1453–1924		 Ottoman Caliphate abolished
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